THE COMMUNITY

The Village

The capitals of the princes' districts, the seats of the regencies, are commercialized half-European, half-Chinese towns like Denpasar and Buleleng; but the true life of Bali is concentrated in thousands of villages and hamlets. With their thatched roofs they lie buried under awnings of tropical vegetation, the groves and gardens that provide for the needs of the villagers. Out of the chartreuse sea of ricefields they surge like dark green islands of tall palms, breadfruit, mango, papaya, and banana trees.

Underneath the cool darkness, pierced only by the shafts of sunlight that sift through the mesh of leaves, are the houses hidden from view by interminable mud walls that are broken at regular intervals by long narrow gates. All the gates are alike: two mud pillars supporting a small roof of thick thatch, giving access to each household by a raised doorstep of rough stones. In front of every gate is a stone bridge, or, simpler still, a section of coconut tree trunk to ford the deep irrigation ditch that runs invariably along both sides of the road.

A simple village consists of family compounds, each completely surrounded by walls, lined on each side of a wide well built avenue that runs in the direction of the cardinal points; from the mountain to the sea, the Balinese equivalent to our " north and " south." The villages grew as they spread in these directions, and the Dutch bad only to pave the main streets and extend them through the rice fields to obtain the five hundred mile net of automobile roads that covers this small island.

The Balinese, being still essentially pedestrians, took good care to shade the roads with large trees, and every morning and every evening one sees the people in the streets, men going to work, nonchalantly beating rhythms on their agricultural implements, or returning from the fields overloaded with sheaves of rice heavy with grain. Poised women come and go with great loads or shin black clay pots on their beads. If it happens to be market day in the village, at dawn the roads are crowded with husky people from the nearby villages who come to sell their produce - piles of coconuts, bananas, or vegetables, pottery, mats, baskets, and forth - carrying on their beads even the table that serves as stand. If there is a feast in the village temple, the people parade in yellow, green, and magenta silks with fantastic pyramids fruit and flowers, offerings to the gods, in a pageant that you have made Diaghilev turn green with envy.

Naked children play at the gates by the bell-shaped bask where the fighting cocks are kept. Each morning the baskets a', lined out on the street so that the roosters may enjoy the spectacle of people passing by. Small boys wearing only oversize sun-hat drive the enormous water-buffaloes, which in Bali appear in colours, a dark muddy grey, and a pale, almost transparent pink albino variety. A water-buffalo will not hesitate to attack tiger; their ponderous calm and their gigantic horns are awe inspiring to Europeans, who have been told that their evening bath. the buffaloes. They have often charged white people for no apparent reason, although the smallest Balinese boy can man handle the great beasts. They love to lie in the water and be scrubbed by their little guardians, who climb all over them and bang from their horns when they take them for their evening
bath. The buffalo tolerates the children perhaps as a rhinoceros tolerates the birds that eat the ticks on its back.

The Balinese raise a fine breed of cattle, a beautiful variety of cow, with delicate legs and a long neck, that resembles overgrown deer more than ordinary cows. Ducks are driven in flocks to the rice fields, where they feed on all sorts of small water animals. Their guardian is a boy or an old man who leads them with a little banner of white cloth on the end of a bamboo pole topped by a bunch of white feathers. This he plants on the ground and be can then go away for the rest of the day, sure that his ducks will not wander away. At sundown the trained ducks gather around the flag waiting to be taken home. When the duck guardian arrives, the flock is all together, and at a signal from the flag, they march home, straight as penguins and in perfect military formation.

All Balinese domestic animals are rather extraordinary; chickens are killed constantly by rushing automobiles, but their owners make no provision to keep them from the road except the low bamboo fence that bars the house gate, and that is intended, perhaps, more for the pigs, which in Bali belong to a monstrous variety that surely exists nowhere else. The Balinese pig, an untamed descendant of the wild bog, has an absurd sagging back and a fat stomach that drags on the ground like a heavy bag suspended loosely from its bony hips and shoulders.

The roads are particularly infested with miserable dogs, the scavengers of the island. Most dogs are attached to the house they protect and keep clean of garbage, but they reproduce unchecked and there are thousands of homeless living skeletons, covered with ulcers and mange, that bark and wail all night in

great choruses. The Balinese are not disturbed by them and peacefully through the hideous noise. The curs are suppose frighten away witches and evil spirits, but I could never disco bow our neighbours knew when it was an ordinary mortal not a devil that the dogs barked at; they always awoke when stranger came into the house at night. Such dogs were undoubtedly provided by the gods to keep Bali from perfection.

The Balinese make a clear differentiation e dwelling-grounds and the " unlived " parts of the village, for public use such as the temples, assembly halls, market, cemeteries, public baths. The village is a unified organism in every individual is a corpuscle and every institution and organ. The heart of the village is the central square, invariably located in the " center " of the village, the intersection of the two-A avenues: the big road that runs from the Balinese " , South " and a street that cuts it at right angles from " east west " Consequently the crossroads are the center of a Rose Winds formed by the entire village; the cardinal dir mean a great deal to the Balinese and the crossroads are a spot of great importance.
All around and in the square are the important public. places of the village; the town temple (pura desa) , with its assembly (bale agung) , the palace Of the local feudal prince , the market, the large shed for cockfights (wantilan) , and the tall and often elaborate tower where hang the alarm tomtoms (kulkul) to call to meetings, announce events, or warn of dangers. Also important to the village life is the ever present waringin , a giant banyan, the sacred tree of the Hindus, planted in the square. Under its shadow take place the shows and dances given in connection with the frequent festivals; market is also held there in villages that do not have a special market enclosure. In ancient villages the waringin grows to a giant size, shading the entire square and dripping aerial roots that, unless clipped before they reached the ground, would grow into trunks that unchecked might swallow up a village. A beautiful village waringin is an enormous rounded dome of shiny leaves supported by a mossy, gnarled single trunk hung with a curtain of tentacles that are cut evenly at the height of a man; but in the waringins that have grown freely outside the village, the tree spreads in every direction in fantastic shapes. The aerial filaments dig into the earth and grow into whitish trunks and branches emerging at illogical angles and filled with parasite ferns, a dreamlike forest that is in reality a single tree

Somewhere in the outskirts of the village are the public bath and the cemetery, a neglected field overgrown with weeds and decaying bamboo altars, with its temple of the Dead and its mournful kepuh tree, a sad and eerie place. The bathing-place is generally a cool spot shaded by clusters of bamboo in the river that runs near the village, where all day long men and women bathe in the brown water in separate modest groups. Some villages have special bathing-places with fancy water-spouts and low walls of carved stone, with separate compartments for men and women. Tedjakula in North Bali is famous for its horse bath, a special compartment that is larger and even more elaborate than the baths for the people.

THE MARKET

Important towns have great utilitarian markets of cement and galvanized tin where shrewd Arabs and Chinese keep regular shops of cloth and imported knick-knacks, but the average holds market under the shadow, of the waringin or under square shades of straw mats like umbrellas. A few people sell there everyday; the " big " market takes place every third day of the of religius calendar. There are " market associations " organized in group of three desas that work together, holding market in rotation every day in each of the three villages. The women are-the financiers that control the market; one seldom sees men in it. except in certain trades or to help carry such a load as a fat pig. Even the money-changers are women, who sit behind little filled with rolls of small change, kepeng, Chinese brass coinswith a hole in the middle, worth a small fraction of a cent (about five to seven to a cent according to the current exchange). coins are strung into rolls of two hundred, called satak (one string of twenty-five cents) . Prices in the market vary according to the buyer; they are lowest to the villager in his home town, slightly higher for the Balinese of other villages, and considerably higher to foreigners. This is customary and understandable. one takes, into consideration the communal spirit of the village

and of the Balinese. It is significant that an average meal in the market costs a Balinese only twenty-five kepeng or about two or three American cents. The Balinese do not count in the present Dutch monetary system of guilders and cents; among themselves they use only the smallest unit, the kepeng, and the largest, the ringgit, big silver coins (worth two and a half guilders) that are normally divided into 1,200 kepeng. The Balinese cannot visualize a foreigner using kepengs and when I bought peanuts or a banana at a food-stand and they did not have Dutch pennies for change, the women vendors were amused to see me pocket a heavy string of kepengs. Accustomed to dealing in hundreds and thousands, they have acquired a surprising knowledge of mathematics, and the women can add, subtract, multiply, or divide with the speed of an adding machine. To test this ability we used to ask the women of our household for multiplications of numbers of several ciphers; with mysterious operations of a few kepengs spread on their laps, they always found a quick and accurate result.

The market reaches its height about noon, when it is bard to walk through the crowd of semi-nude women. At that time the animation is very great and the market resounds with the excited bargaining, the constant coming and going of people, and the squealing of the pigs that are mercilessly stuffed into baskets or carried in the arms of the women like babies. The thousand smells of coconut oil, flowers, spices, and dried fish combine to make the pungent smell so characteristic of Balinese markets. The soft browns and yellows of the women's skirts and the bright colored sashes they wear, the graceful movements and unconscious beauty of their poses, make of the market a show as interesting to watch as their luxurious and spectacular feasts. The excitement subsides gradually in the late afternoon, when the women return home loaded with the merchandise they have bought or with the empty baskets balanced on one corner, in the most absurd defiance of the laws of gravity, by the heavy strings of kepengs that record the day's sales. Most markets have a little shrine for the goddess of fertility and of gardens, Melanting, alsothe deity of the market, to whom the vendors make small offerings for good luck.

THE SOCIAL ORDER

    It was surprising to discover the extent to which the question of rank obsesses so simple and democratic a people as the Balinise. In our house every time Gusti came near, everyone scramble down the veranda steps to place themselves at a level lower than his. Once in Ubud we received a visit from two little girls, high caste dancers of ten. They were to spend the night in the house, but they would not sleep unchaperoned and a servant was pointed to watch over them; when they heard he was to Sleep in the attic, twenty feet up, they snatched their pillows and ran upstairs, not to be defiled a second longer by an inferior located above them. They preferred to sleep on a bard bench rather than in the bed made for them, while the poor servant had to Sleep on the floor. Once we visited a high priest, who invited us" remain for lunch; when the food came he apologized for having to ask us to sit down, because, be said, " the gods would not it " if he, a Brahmana, placed himself at a level lower than ours. We observed similar situations over and over again among people of all classes.

Five centuries of feudal domination by an aristocracy have made the Balinese so conscious of caste, the determination of a man's place in society by his birth, that the whole of theirs social life and etiquette is moulded by this institution. A member of the aristocracy is constantly on the look-out so that his inf may keep to their appointed level and address him in the language of respect. Princes still demand the adulation and kowtowing their former vassals, although now their power has ended, and their prestige is greatly diminished. Caste rules today are I restricted to the observance of established formulas of etiq even among the princes, who were always fairly liberal. Castee relations are relaxed and simple compared with the absurd intolerance of India. But the common people take for granted the divine superiority of the aristocracy and are so thoroughly accustomed to arrogance that they submit to the demands of caste etiquette as a matter of duty.

By far the most strict of social taboos is that on intermarriage. A man may marry any woman he wishes as long as she is of equal or lower caste, but under no circumstances may a low-caste man marry a woman of a higher class. For such a man even to have relations with a woman of the royal or priestly castes was a crime punished in olden times by the death of both; the woman perhaps stabbed by a member of her disgraced family, the man thrown into the sea in a weighted sack, the most degrading of deaths. Today punishment is simply exile of the guilty couple to the wilds of Djembrana or the little penal island of Nusa Penida. But like everything else in Bali, special concessions can be made if the difference of castes is not very great and the man is influential; in some cases the affair has been settled by fines, annulment of the marriage, or a special edict raising the man's caste.

ETIQUETTE

Despite strict caste regulations, the code of etiquette is simple and reasonable; a general air of frankness and friendliness prevails in daily intercourse, and it is only in the resence of an arrogant prince that the common man has to humiliate himself; even more polite treatment is given to a high priest. From the beginning a stranger is struck by the extreme politeness and gentle manners, even in the lower classes. The strongest criticism that can be made of a person is that he has no manners. Such a freak should be avoided.

One is greeted on the road with the words: Lungga kidia, Where to? " and a visitor is welcomed with: " Wau rauh, Just arrived." These are formulas not to be taken in their literal sense. A visitor takes leave by asking to be excused: " Tiang pamit," the answer to which is simply " Yes," "ingih" There are no other words for greeting or for good-bye. It is not polite to answer a question with monosyllables, and one should not point with. The index finger. It is better to use the words for the cardinal to indicate direction, but if one must point, it should be with the thumb, holding the rest of the band closed.

The Balinese are constantly paying visits to one another, but no one would dream of making a formal visit without bringing along a gift of some sort: fruit, rice, eggs, or chickens, given casually and received without a word of thanks. It is taken for. granted that the present is appreciated by the acceptance but if one wants to be over-polite, one says: " Tiang nunas", "want it " or " I like it " (ideh in the common language) object is banded with the right band while touching the elbow with the left, and it is received with the same gesture.

The gift-problem became acute for us as we entered in competition with our friends and neighbors for more and valuable presents. Someone would arrive with a basket of egg or rice; we repaid the visit taking a cheap bead-cloth. On the next visit they came with piles of fruit and even live chicken we had to rush to the market to buy a batik shirt or a bottles of Javanese perfume. We generally ended by exchanging brocades krisses, and so forth for pieces of silk, flashlights, and fountain pens. The Balinese are very much concerned with the price paid for an object, and they always insisted on knowing what we paid . for a present, until we realized that it was a great mistake, to remove move the price tags. When we bought new glasses or new Plates, Dog, our house-boy, washed them carefully around the la as not to rub off the price.

It is necessary to be properly dressed to pay or to receive a, visit The breasts of men and women should be covered by a special breast-cloth, a saput for men and a selendang for women. People in the house always dashed for their breast-cloth, usually an ordinary foreign towel, when a special guest arrived. Immediately the visitor was provided with green coconuts to quench his thirst, with cigarettes and betel-nut. Up-to-date Balinese like to , offer soda-pop, coffee and Chinese pastries. The chewing bete]-nut is the first gesture of hospitality and the main social pastime of the entire archipelago. To chew betel, a piece of the green nut of the betel palm is dabbed with a little lime, wrapped in pepper leaves, sirih, and the whole chewed together with a large wad of shredded tobacco that is held under a monstrously protruding lower lip. The combination of betel, sirih, and lime produces an abundant flow of saliva, red as blood, and the betel addict spits constantly, leaving crimson splotches wherever he goes. After certain guests departed, our house-boy always -had to wash the veranda steps because they looked as if a murder bad been committed on them. Today betel-chewing is not favoured by the younger generation, not only because it looks so disagreeable, but because it spoils the teeth. The older the person, the fonder he is of betel, and the ingredients are always kept on hand in boxes with little compartments or in special satchels of woven pandanus. Old men without teeth have a special bamboo tube with an iron rod to mash the various ingredients together. The sirih, betel, and lime are presented to guests in little ready-made packages often beautifully decorated with streamers of delicately cut-out palm-leaf. They are called tian2ng or bas6h, a gift.

A host must act as servant to his guests, himself attending to their comfort and not partaking of the refreshments. Meals are also served by the host, even if he has servants and assistants, and he can eat only after the guests have finished. If the visitors come from another village, they are expected to stay for the night and even for days at a time. The place of honour in the house is then assigned to them. After a reasonable period of time the visit is repaid and the presents reciprocated.

Very strict are the rules between men and women. On public occasions men and women keep to themselves in separate groups, and people from Gianyar are shocked to see the sexes mingle in Badung while watching a show. In the same manner the people of Badung are disgusted because in Tabanan men and women bathe near together. It is rude to look into a public bath and even worse to enter it unless to bathe. Then the other bathers become figuratively invisible. Great courtesy is shown even among people are intimate and it is extremely unusual for a man to get "fresh " with a girl in public; should it happen, the man would be severely punished. Thus a woman can confidently remain in her house while her male relatives are away at work, and a girl can go anywhere without fear of being, aproached by a stranger. Girls of high caste usually go chaperoned. Lovers are particularly careful not to show their emotions in public.

To neglect releasing a loud belch after a meal would be taken by the host as a sign that the food was not satisfactory. In general the Balinese are very frank in actions that would be out the question among us, such as clearing the throat, spitting, I so forth. These are perfectly normal actions no one needs, conceal.

But the key to Balinese etiquette among the castes consists in the language spoken and in keeping at the proper level. Under no circumstance should a common man stand higher than aristocrat. If a lowly person has to pass a nobleman who is sitting he stoops in front of him until he is reasonably far away, and to address his superior he must squat or sit on the ground clasping his hands together in front of his chest or over his left shoulder. To retire, after begging leave, he walks backwards, stooping holding his bands clasped.

LANGUAGE

    When two strange Balinese meet, as for instance on the they call each other as djero, a safe, polite way of addressing someone whose title is unknown. Since there are no outward signs of caste, the appropriate titles cannot be used and a words for " you " (cai, nyai, nani) are extremely familiar, derogatory. Strangers talk in the middle language, a compro between the daily speech and the polite tongue. Should, how ever, one be of low caste and the other a nobleman, it would be wrong for them to continue talking in this manner, and one of the two, probably the high-caste man, will ask the other: " Antuh
lingge? Where is your place (caste) ? " which is answered by the other man's stating his caste. Then the usual system is adopted; the low man speaks the high tongue and the aristocrat answers in the common language.

When I started to study Balinese I found it disturbing to hear the people around the house talking in the daily language and then suddenly shifting to high to address Gusti, our landlord prince, who answered them in the common language. The high and low tongues are not two dialects or even variations of the same languages, but two distinct, unrelated languages with separate roots, different words, and extremely dissimilar character. It was always incongruous to hear an educated nobleman talking the harsh, guttural low tongue, while an ordinary peasant had to address him in the refined high Balinese.

The low language is the everyday tongue spoken by equals at home, at work, and at the market. It is undoubtedly the native language of the island and belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian dialects, the aboriginal languages of the archipelago. The high language is similar to Javanese and is of Sanskrit-Javanese origin. It is flowery, and rich in shades of meaning; I have been told that to speak it well, one should know about ten different words to express the same idea. Few Balinese can speak the high language well, and the ordinary peasant generally ignores it, except perhaps for standard expression to address a superior. The peasant learned to listen only when he became a vassal of the Hindu Javanese feudal lords, who had to learn the language of the island, but they demanded to be addressed in their own, high tongue by the unworthy natives. The natural politeness of the Balinese perhaps gave birth to the middle language, used when in doubt of a man's caste.

It is an important rule that one may not use high terms when speaking about oneself; it would be poor taste to call one's head by the elegant term prabu, instead of the common word sirah, or to refer to one's feet as Cokor instead of batis. It would be a dreadful insult to speak of someone's head as tandas, meaning the head of animals.
The type of language used in conversation is prescribed by one of the strict rules of caste etiquette, and the use of the wrong from is a serious offence. A prince has to be addressed as "highness" (Ratu'or Agun ) but he and the people of his caste talk to everybody in the low language, except perhaps to their parents, elder brothers, and members of the priestly caste, the Brahmana Polite people (not all high-born people are considered polite) are supposed to address old people in the high language.

There is still a fourth language, the Kawi, used on ritual occasions, in poetry and classic literature. It is archaic
javanese in which nine out of ten words are Sanskrit; but the knowledge of Kawi rests almost entirely with the priests and scholarly Balinese.

The language problem of Bali has been further complicated by the addition of Malay, now officially the language of the Dutch East Indies. It is taught in the schools and is spreading rapidly among the Balinese youth because it is considerably simpler than the difficult Balinese and is free of the caste regulations. Thus a modern Balinese scholar would require five languages for social and cultural intercourse: the high, middle; low Balinese, plus Kawi and Malay. Such a linguist is not rare, today in Bali.

THE CASTES

The Hindu caste system as it is found today in Bali was not firmly implanted until after the conquest by the Famous Gajah Mada. Then Hindu-Javanese rule was definitely established, the island was divided into vassal territories paying tribute to the local princes that were given control. The natives lived under a class system of their own long before that time, however they had their ranks, with a sort of aristocracy that combined government and priesthood.

Hindu Javanese penatration did not reach many of the remote mountain communities, which remained outside the fudal territories. There, even today, live the conservative old-fashioned Balinese, entrenched against the landlords regarding them as intruders. In these villages the Hindu castes are not recognized and the descendants of the primitive aristocracy proudly retain their titles and their authority.. At the top of the long list of native ranks are the pasek and the bandesa, the heads of -the two central institutions of the old-style community: the temple of " origin., " and the assembly hall, ritually belonging to the "right" and "left." I was told that a girl of these castes who marries a man of the Hindu aristocracy is publicly renounced by her family and spiritually " thrown out " of the village. Also held in respect are the blacksmiths, a caste in themselves, pande, the ancient fire-priests who made the magic krisses, symbol of the family's virility. Even Brahmanas, highest among all classes, must use the high language when addressing a pande who has his tools in his bands.

In the tributary districts the natives coordinated their castes with those of the new nobility, in a great scale of ranks that have now become so muddled through intermarriage that they appear confused even to the Balinese themselves. The original castes still remain as subdivisions of the fourth and lowest of the Hindu castes, the Sudras, who constitute about ninety-three per cent of the population of Bali.

The Hindu-Balinese nobility is divided into the three well known groups: the priests,. Brahmanas (Brahmins of India) ; the ruling royalty, Satrias (Ksatriyas) ; and the military class., Wesias (Vesiya) . They are supposed to originate directly from the gods According to the legends, the Brahmanas sprang out of the mouth of Brahma, the Satria from his arms, and the Wesia from his feet. Perhaps the reason why the common people look upon their nobility with such respect is that they have still an unshaken belief in their divine origin. The true Balinese religion consists mainly in the worship of the family ancestors, with the patriarch founder of the village as the communal god Thus it was easy for the conquerors to establish their own dead kings as ancestral gods, since they, too, descended from canonized kings and holy men who were in turn descendants of the highest divinities. This fitted perfectly with the Balinese idea of rank and with of ancestors. In many legends the great kings and religious teachers of the past were considered as reincarnations of gods, so I was never surprised when a priest or a prince assured me in all seriusness that his family descended from Indra or Wisnu, or some such divine character.

Such is the caste complex of some Balinese that I often found silly boys from Denpasar posing as members of the higher castes when they visited a strange town where they were not know. Some common people say that once they were of a higher caste and that their present state is due to faults committed by their, ancestors. Good behaviour on this earth brings a raising of in the next incarnation, and bad behaviour the opposite; consequently social position in the world of men is the result of behaviour in former lives. Many Wesias claim that their families Satrias lowered in rank while they were ordinary humans such. was the case of the ancestor of the royal families of Badung and Tabanan, the legendary Arya Damar, who was lowered to Wesia. On the other hand, the Balinese insist that the raja Karangasem was a Wesia who had himself elevated to the satria caste after the fall of the k1ungkung dynasty.

The " highest of the high," the Brahmanas, claim descent from the great priest Wau Rau'h, who wandered all over bali in legendary times creating children with women of all classes even the servant women of his wives. These children, the future priests, were. the heads of the various brahmana families some of, which are higher than others, according to their purity of blood on account of the origin of their various mothers. The. brahmanas are further divided into two sects: the Siwa and budha: the descendants of the two famous brothers, the religious ers Mpu' Kuturan and Mpu' Bbarada, who created the the laws for Balinese. A distinction is made between initiated brahmanas, the priests, and the uninitiated.

it is generally recognized that the Brahmanas are higher than the Satrias, but a great undercurrent of disagreement and animosity has always existed between them on this account. The Satrias resented having to pay homage to the Brahmanas, and the legends and historical records are full of instances of the feud created by their struggle for caste supremacy. Kings were deposed by adventurers supported by Brahmanas; high priests cursed rulers and drove them to commit suicide, and often they had to flee and hide to protect their daughters from arrogant princes who wished to take them as wives, thus affronting their superior caste pride. Once.in'a diauk performance I saw a typical story enacted: The Radja of Bali, the Dewa Agung of Klungkung, wanted to prove that Brahmanas were fakers when they claimed supernatural powers. He placed a duck in a well and sent for the highest priest in the country so that he could prove his magic power by guessing what was in the well. The priest said that it was a great serpent, a naga. The king laughed in his face and uncovered the well; a huge naga, fire streaming from its nostrils, shot out and coiled around the king's.body and would have crushed him to death if the priest had not killed the naga with a miraculous arrow. From then on, the princes did not dare to question the supremacy of the Brahmanas. This legend is still commemorated at the cremation of Satrias, when the Brahmanic priest shoots arrows at the naga banda, the serpent that conveys the soul to heaven.

But the dispute still goes unsettled, with the priest's sphere of influence restricted now to purely religious duties. Brahmanas are devoid of administrative powers, but serve as judges in the courts; they could not be sentenced to death and did not pay taxes to the princes, but instead bad to pray for the well being of the land. Their own regulations forbid them from attending cockfights or making money in commerce. They are exalted and aloof, but ordinary people secretly laugh at them; there is a popular story, Pan Bunkling, in which the hero is constantly poking fun at Brahmanas and their philosophy. The Brahmanas can be identified by the titles of Ida Bagus for men and Ida Ayu for women, both meaning " Eminent and Beautiful."

Satrias are supposed to be the descendants of the former rulers, and many claim to be of the family of Sri Krisna Kapakisan ' the great overlord that ruled Bali at the time of Cadja Mada. He was supposedly born of a heavenly nymph and a stone Brahmana (Korn). The Satria caste is divided into two main groups; the Satria Dalem, the descendants of the ruling princes, and the lesser Satria Djawa, those of the prime ministers' families. Today Satria blood is very mixed, owing to intermarriage with the lower castes, some of which are considered even lower than the higher Wesias. The Satrias are called by the titles of Ratu, Anak Agung, Tjokorde, and so forth. Among the lesser groups are the Predewa and the Pangakan (who bear the titles of Prebagus and Presanghyang).

The members of the third caste, the Wesias, are better known in Bali by their title of Custi, also subdivided into many groups. Tbe-bigbest, the Pregusti, are the descendants of Arya Damar, the predecessor of Gajah Mada. The lower Wesias are the descendants of the lesser Javanese princes and Pungawas. The Custis are the majority of the Balinese nobility and are often Politically influential.

Certain professions are unclean, and if practised within,the village pollute the desa, such as the indigo-dyers, pottery, palm sugar, and arak-makers. Although Korn claims there are no real outcastes in Bali, I was told by everybody that indigo-dyers belong to a special caste, the pamesan, who are forbidden by traditional law to use wood or cotton in their cremation bier, which should be open, without a roof, and devoid of ornaments. They said that the pamesan are often rich and careful to conceal their origin. When it is mentioned that someone is a p2mesan, it is done in a pitying whisper. There was a scandal in Denpasar about someone who had maliciously accused another of being a pamesan. This may perhaps point to a trace of the idea of the outcaste.

The aristocracy divides the population of Bali into "I insiders" (dalem), which are themselves, those who live within the place; and the " outsiders" (Jaba) , the common people. From the point of view of the great majority of the Balinese, this is a fallacy, since it is the nobility who are the real outsiders. The feudalism of the hindu ristocracy was curiously only superimposed on theBalinese patriarchal communism, and centuries of feudal rule have failed to do away with the closed independence of the village communities. Thus the nobility is left devoid of voice where it concerns the inner affairs of the community, despite the Pungawas and Perbekels they appoint to keep an eye on the villagers.

THE COURTS

The Balinese like to settle their differences peacefully, and if possible to come to ar, agreement among themselves. Otherwise they apply to the Vilhage chiefs, the klian or the penyarikan of the desa or bandjar to act as mediators for a friendly settlement. Disputes concerning rice fields or irrigation water are settled by the council
of a special agricultural society, the subak. Should it become necessary to adopt a strong decision, the village council votes for a verdict.

In any case the village heads leave no stone unturned for a quick settlement of the affair to prevent its becoming involved in a legal court procedure, which is always distasteful to them, and it is only as a last resort, when all other resources have failed and passions are very much aroused, that the Balinese will appeal to the official high tribunal, the kerta.

I he repugnance of the people against having to appeal to the kerta is only part of the Balinese policy of keeping the princes from interfering too much in their affairs. The kertas are the courts of the princes and they are generally composed of three Brahmanic priests who act as judges. They are assisted by a number of kantias, " lawyers," and a scribe.

Trials take place in a special shed, built over a high stone or brick platform. The Kerta Gosa, the court house of Klungkung, one of the inevitable sights of Bali, is already famous because of the lurid paintings that cover the entire ceiling, depicting the punishments that await a law-breaker in hell. The court house is beautifully decorated; two stone serpents flank the stairs that lead to the platform where the judges sit on great gilt chairs.

A trial must be conducted with the greatest dignity and restraint. There are rules for the language employed, the behaviour of the participants, and the payment of trial expenses. It is interesting that court procedure resembles that of cockfights in its rules and terminology. On the appointed day the plaintiff and the defendant must appear properly dressed, with their witnesses, and their cases and declarations carefully written down. An absentee or one whose case is badly stated loses his suit. The kantias read the statements of each party and then those of the witnesses in their successive order. No one is allowed to speak unless he is addressed. Talking excessively or too loud, quarrelling, or pointing at the judges is punished by a fine case has been thoroughly stated, the witnesses have testified the evidence has been Produced, the Judges study the reach a decision.